CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study Waste poses a threat to public health and the environment if it is not stored, collected, and disposed of properly (Nyang’echi, 2012). The problem of refuse material with no intrinsic value has dominated attitudes towards disposal. This study investigates the problem of refuse disposal among residents in Nkpor metropolis. Globally, millions of tons of municipal solid waste are generated every day. Urban waste management is drawing increasing attention, as it can easily be observed that too much garbage is lying uncollected in the streets, causing inconvenience, environmental pollution, and posing a public health risk (Zia and Devadas, 2017). The problem of solid, liquid, and toxic-waste management in Africa has come with urbanization in the developing world. An important feature of the urbanization of the developing world is the rapid growth of cities and metropolitan areas. The high rate of urbanization in African countries implies a rapid accumulation of refuse. Social and economic changes that most African countries have witnessed since the 1960s have also contributed to an increase in the waste generated per capital (Owusu and Afutu-Kotey, 2012). As a result, municipal waste management constitutes one of the most crucial health and environmental issues facing managers of African cities (Ahmed, 2011). Proper waste management is a public benefit and obligation. Improper waste disposal by one individual affects the entire citizenry, so, as a policy, countries have tasked every individual, establishment or institution to contribute significantly to the process of keeping their communities and environment clean (Onibokun and Kumuyi, 2013). In the colonial days, the population of the Ghana, then the Gold Coast, was below six million and waste was better managed. The waste generated in the 1920s was less voluminous and less complex than today, consisting largely of leaves, paper and wood products, with little plastic or hazardous chemicals (Fobil and Carboo, 2010). The poor waste management situation in recent years has led to a high incidence of sanitation related illness, such as cholera, intestinal worms and typhoid. These are among the top ten diseases that have been recorded, which raises the alarm of a public health crisis (Fobil and Carboo, 2010). In Ghana, problems are encountered at all levels of waste management, particularly, collection, transportation and disposal. Generally, existing public facilities, including sanitary facilities, are inadequate to serve the user population, and the sheer volume of municipal solid waste generated in the country’s urban centres is overwhelming. While existing waste disposal facilities are inadequate to deal with the quality and quantity of waste generated, more sophisticated systems are expensive and their maintenance requirements are high (Palczynski, 2012). Study conducted in Nigeria showed that the perception of domestic waste disposal indicates that people’s attitudes about and perceptions of sanitation issues contribute to the waste management problem (Palczynski, 2012). Similarly, a study done in Khulna, Bangladesh found that city dwellers think because they pay taxes it is the sole responsibility of the city authority to provide them with a nuisance-free habitable city (Achankeng, 2013). Typically, local governments are responsible for the collection and disposal of the wastes generated within their jurisdiction, as well as for the operation and maintenance of their equipment. However, local governments usually lack the authority and resources to provide a satisfactory and economically viable service. Effective and efficient solid waste management depends upon an equitable distribution of responsibilities, authority, and revenue between the national government and all the local governments (Achankeng, 2013). General waste management in Ghana is perceived to be the responsibility of the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development, which supervises the decentralized Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs). However, regulatory authority is vested in the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under the auspices of the Ministry of Environment and Science. The MMDAs are responsible for the collection and final disposal of solid waste through their Waste Management Departments and their Environmental Health and Sanitation Departments. However, there is a growing perception that inadequate education about the importance of proper sanitation account for poor waste management practices in Ghana. Other factors accounting for this situation are poor attitudes and lack of concern about environmental issues, high levels of poverty and misguided waste disposal practices (Peter, 2012). As in many developing countries, waste management in Ghana is a complex issue that has been a major issue on the priority list of successive governments, local authorities, and international donors in recent years. Waste management is a growing problem in Ghana, and despite large investments that have been made to meet the challenges of effective waste management in urban Ghana, there is little evidence that such efforts are having their expected effect (Peter, 2012). Although huge capital investment is required to improve waste management, social and behavioral factors are also important if waste management in urban areas is to be successful. It is in this light that the current study aims to investigate community practices and perceptions about solid waste management and it implications for health in urban Accra (Rhule, 2018). The growth of the world’s population, increasing urbanization, rising standards of living, and rapid developments in technology have all contributed to an increase in both the amount and the variety of solid wastes generated by industrial, domestic and other activities. Many industrialized European countries like Britain, France, Spain, Ireland and Italy were being classified by as constituting the nucleus of the “dirtiest†countries in Europe, “drowning in a sea of garbage†and with most of their “municipal rubbish dumped in landfill sitesâ€Â (Nyang’echi, 2012). A World Bank (Zia and Devadas, 2017) report on the state of solid waste around the world estimates that, the amount of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) will rise from the current 1.3 billion tons per year to 2.2 billion tons per year by 2025, with much of the increase coming from rapidly growing cities in developing countries. Low income countries are also expected to generate 213 million tons of solid waste a day with the population rising to 676 million by 2025. Lower Middle Income ones are also projected to generate 956 million tons of solid waste per day with a population of 2.08 billion. Waste generation will hit 360 million tons per day by 2025 in Upper Middle Income countries with expected population of 619 million. For High Income nations, waste generation a day by 2025 will reach 686 million tones and population at 912 million. The report further states that Municipal solid waste challenges are going to be enormous or even greater than the challenges we are facing with climate change (Zia and Devadas, 2017). Household waste in Africa contains food waste (biodegradable/ compostable), sand, gravel, paper, plastic, metals (example aluminium) and glass (the last four components are recoverable, reusable and recyclable). Plastic is a major nuisance in municipal solid waste which degrades the environment, clogs drains and causes flooding in the rainy season. Waste is typically disposed of without consideration for environmental and human health impacts, leading to its accumulation in cities, towns and uncontrolled dumpsites. Waste handlers and waste pickers are especially vulnerable and may also become vectors, contracting and transmitting diseases when human or animal excreta or medical wastes are in the waste stream. Improperly disposed solid waste left unattended to, can contaminate ground and surface water and also create greenhouse gas emissions and other air pollutants. Garbage is often burned in residential areas to reduce volume and uncover metals. Burning creates thick smoke that contains carbon monoxide, soot and nitrogen oxides, all of which are hazardous to human health and degrade urban air quality (Banjo and Adebambo, 2017). Uncollected wastes often clog drains and cause the stagnation of water, the breeding of mosquitoes or the contamination of water bodies from which the population normally takes water for consumption, cooking and cleaning. In tropical countries, the high temperatures and humid conditions accelerate degradation, increase the amount of leachate and directly affect the surrounding ecosystems by penetrating the soil and contaminating groundwater (Banjo and Adebambo, 2017). The affluent lifestyle brought about by modernization and development aggravates the problem of improper solid waste disposal on health. While solid waste issues are not a novelty, uncoordinated disposal and its consequences if overlooked however can wreck the health and existence of any well-meaning people. Uncollected solid waste blocks drains, and causes flooding and subsequent spread of water- borne diseases. Solid waste that is not properly disposed of, especially excreta and other refuse from households and the community, are a serious health hazard and which can lead to the spread of infectious diseases. Unattended waste lying around attracts flies, rats, and other creatures that in turn spread disease. This leads to unhygienic conditions and thereby leading to a rise in the health problems. Other high-risk group includes population living close to a waste dump and those whose water supply gets contaminated (Amin and Hossain, 2015). Amin and Hossain, (2015) also argues that, uncollected solid waste also increases risk of injury and infection and that, annual floods in Eastern and Western parts of Africa, and Indian cities are blamed, at least in part, on plastic bags blocking drains. UN-Habitat health data also show that diarrhea and acute respiratory infections are significantly higher for children living in households where solid waste is dumped, or burned in the yard, compared to households in the same cities that receive a regular waste collection service. Improper solid waste disposal activities have diverse effects ranging from health, environment, and human life and property as different researchers espouse on the consequences of improper municipal solid waste disposal. Rotten organic materials pose great public health risks, including serving as breeding grounds for disease vectors. “Improper solid waste disposal leads to substantial negative environmental impacts (for example, pollution of air, soil and water, and generation of greenhouse gases from landfills), and health and safety problems (such as diseases spread by insects and rodents attracted by garbage heaps, and diseases associated with different forms of pollution)â€ÂÂ. Solid waste disposal in Kumasi is a complex issue that has been a major feature on the priority of successive municipal chief executives and waste management groups. Generally, existing facilities including sanitary facility are inadequate to serve the people, the ever increasing volumes of solid waste generated in the Kumasi municipality is overwhelming. Problems are encountered at all levels of waste management namely; poor network, different settlement structures making collection in some areas difficult, increasing waste quantities due to urbanization, inadequate and obsolete waste collection equipment. The situation creates a suitable environment for the breeding of disease vectors such as mosquitoes, flies, cockroaches and mice. In view of this, some of the inhabitants dispose of rubbish indiscriminately such as drainage channels, and the recent advent of polythene bags have even worsen the situation for waste management groups as they are seen everywhere in the city (Amin and Hossain, 2015).